Objective #1: Understand how true and false is represented in C++.

• When decisions are made in a computer program, they are simply the result of a computation in which the final result is either true or false. Computer programs do not have intuition or "gut feelings"; they simply make thousands of yes-or-no-like decisions at blinding speeds. The computer programmer must set up these decisions within the algorithm of a computer program to achieve the desired results.
  
  
• The value zero (0) is considered to be false by C++. Any positive or negative value is considered to be true. Many people assume that only positive one is considered to be true but technically C++ evaluates any non-zero value to be true.
  
  
• Boolean expressions are used in certain kinds of C++ statements. A Boolean expression evaluates to either true or false. A simple example of a Boolean expression is (price < 10.00) where price is a variable. If price is equal to the value 8.34, then the Boolean expression as a whole would be considered to be true since 8.34 is indeed less than 10.00.

Objective #2: Use relational operators.

• Relational operators provide the tools with which programs make decisions with true and false evaluations.
  
  Relational operators:
  

==      equal to     NOTE: this is two equals symbols next to each other, not to be confused with the assignment operator, =
>        greater than
<        less than
>=      greater than or equal to
<=      less than or equal to
!=       not equal to

Objective #3: Use logical operators.

• When complex decisions must be coded into an algorithm, it may be necessary to "chain together" a few Boolean expressions (that use relational operators).   This is done with logical operators (also called Boolean operators.)
  
  Logical operators:
  

  &&        is the logical AND             operator
  ||            is the logical OR             operator
  !            is the logical NOT            operator
  

• Use this truth table to determine the results of the logical operators. In this table, 1 represents true and 0 represents false.
  
  

  AND				OR				NOT
  A	B	A && B		A	B	A || B		A	!A
  0	0	0		0	0	0		0	1
  0	1	0		0	1	1		1	0
  1	0	0		1	0	1
  1	1	1		1	1	1

  
  
• Logical operators may be mixed within evaluation statements but you must abide by their precedence rules (aka order of operations):   
  
                  NOT operator (!), AND operator (&&), OR operator (||)
  
  You must remember that the && operation is always performed before the || operation because && is similar to multiplication in normal arithmetic while || is similar to addition.
  
  
• Short-circuit evaluation in C++ allows the compiler to quickly evaluate a logical expression in some cases without having to completely evaluate each part of the expression.

Example:    inRange = ( i > 0 && i < 11);     if i is not greater than zero, the program doesn't even worry about checking whether i < 11 or not (since the whole right-hand expression can never be true if i <= 0 ).


• The following control expressions (as we will use within if statements below) have the resulting value of true assuming that the integer variables a, b, & c have the values a = 1, b = 2, & c = 3.
  
  (a < 2)
  (a + 1 == b)
  (a <= b && b < c)
  (b < a || b < c)
  (0 > b || b > 0 && b > 1)
  (a > 0)
  (a)
  (-a)
  (a = 3)
  
  Note that in the control expression (a = 3) where the assignment operator is sometimes accidentally used instead of the "double equals" relational operator, C++ evaluates the control expression as true even if the variable a is previously assigned some other value.
  
  
• The control expression (a) where the variable a was previously assigned the value 1 is true since C++ considers any control expression that evaluates to a nonzero value to be true. Even if the variable a was assigned the value -3, the control expression (a) would evaluate to true.
  
  The following control expressions evaluate to true where a = 1, b = 2, and c = 3:
  
  (b)
  (c + a)
  (2 * b)
  (c - 2 * -30)
  (0 + b)
  (c - a + b)
  
  While the following control expressions evaluate to false where a = 1, b = 2, and c = 3:
  
  (a - 1)
  (!(a))
  (0 * c)
  (c - a - b)
  
  Note that the ! symbol (the logical NOT operator) changes a true to a false.
  
  The following control expressions have the resulting value of false assuming that the integer variables a, b, & c have the values a = 1, b = 2, & c = 3.
  
  (a > 1)
  (b == 1)
  (a > 0 && a < -9)
  (c % 3)
  (a > 0 + 4)
  
  
• The complete order of operations including all of the arithmetic, relational, and logical operators including all of the basic arithmetic, relational, & logical operators is:
  
  *, /, %
  +, -
  <, >, <=, >=, ==, !=
  !
  &&
  ||
  

Objective #4: Be able to use the if statement.

• Practically all computer languages have some sort of if structure. In C++, the if structure (can be called an "if statement" as well) is a one-way selection structure. Example:

  if (number == 3)
  {
          cout << "The value of number is 3"; 
  }

• All if structures use a control expression (or sometimes called controlling expression) to determine if the code in the braces is to be executed. In the example above,
  (number == 3) is the control expression. Note the use of the "double equals" relational operator == and not the assignment operator =.
• Be sure to place the semicolon at the end of each statement within the braces, which can contain many executable statements.
• Realize that you must use the AND operator (&&) to form a compound relational expression. The the following syntax is invalid:
  
  if (0 < number < 10)
  {
        cout << number << " is greater than 0 but less than 10." << endl;
  }
  
  Rather the following syntax must be used:
  
  if (0 < number && number < 10)
  {
        cout << number << " is greater than 0 but less than 10." << endl;
  }
  
  
• According to our Coding Standards, you must use curly braces around the body of an if statement even if there is only one statement. If you use the following statement in a program assignment for this class, you will lose points for not including curly braces even though the statement would not cause compile errors.
  
  if (num > 10)
     cout << num << " is greater than 10";
  
  This is stressed so that beginner programmers develop safe habits and good style. In the following code segment

  if (num > 0)
      cout << "num is positive" << endl;
      cout << "num is not zero" << endl;

  the body of the if statement is only considered to be the first cout statement according to the C++ compiler. The second statement would execute even if num is equal to zero. The indentation of the second statement has no effect on the way the compiler interprets this code.

• According to our Coding Standards, you must not write one line if statements. If you use the following statement in a program assignment for this class, you will lose points for not breaking it up over multiple lines even though it would not cause compile errors.
  
  if (num > 10) cout << num << " is greater than 10";
  
• Avoid the following common mistakes that are made with if statements:

  Always use the "double equals" symbol (i.e. comparison operator) rather than the assignment operator in control expressions:

  int num = 0:

  if (num == 5)
  {
     cout << "hello world" << endl;
  }

  which would not display "hello world" rather than:

  int num = 0;

  if (num = 5)
  {
     cout << "hello world" << endl;
  }

  which would assign the value 5 to the variable num and then display "hello world"

  Avoid using an unnecessary semicolon after a control expression:

  if (num > 0);
  {
     cout << "num is positive" << endl;
  } 

  which would cause the phrase "num is positive" to be displayed even if num is negative.
  

• An interesting use of the mod operator ( % ) is to determine whether a variable is even or odd. Since any even number leaves a remainder of 0 when divided by two and any odd number leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by two, we can use the following if statement
  
  if (num % 2 == 0)
  {
     cout << num << " is an even number" << endl;
  }
  else if (num % 2 == 1)
  {
     cout << num << " is an odd number" << endl;
  }
  
  
• We will not be studying the enumeration type in this CMPSC 101 course as explained on p. 64.
• We will not be studying the conditional operator (e.g. (n1 > n2) ? n1 : n2 ) in this CMPSC 101 course as explained on pp. 64 & 65.

Objective #6: Be able to use the if/else statement.

• The if else statement adds flexibility to the if decision structure. It is a two-way selection structure since either the block of code after the "if" part will be executed or the block of code after the "else" part will be executed.
• The "if" part is executed if the control expression is TRUE while the "else" part is executed if the "if" part is false, guaranteeing one part of the expression to be executed or the other.
• Example:

  if ( number < 0)
  {
          cout << "The number is negative.";
  }
  else
  {
          cout << "The number is zero or positive.";
  }

• Don't forget to include boundary cases when you code control expressions. That is, be sure to use <= or >= instead of < or >, respectively, when necessary.
• You can use an if/else if statement as well. The else clause is optional just as it is with an if statement. Example:
  
  if (number > 10)
  {
          cout << number << " is greater than 10." << endl;
  }
  else if (number <= 9 && number >= 6)
  {
          cout << number << " is greater than 5 and less than 10." << endl;
  }
  else
  {
          cout << number << "must be less than 6." << endl;
  }
  
  
• According to our Coding Standards, you must include one blank line above an if or an if else statement and one blank line below it for good style and readability.
  
  In this example, the if statement "stands out" and is easy to read.
  
  int num = 5;
  
  if (num > 0)
  {
     cout << num << " is greater than 0" << endl;
  }
  
  return 0;
  
  In this example, the code "runs together" and isn't very easy to read. You will lost points if you submit assignments that do not include blank lines around if statements or other structures such as loops, functions, and switch statements.
  
  int num = 5;
  if (num > 0)
  {
     cout << num << " is greater than 0" << endl;
  }
  return 0;

Objective #7: Be able to use and interpret nested if statements.

• if statements and if else statements can be nested within one another in order to model complex decision structures. Be sure to use the braces and semicolons properly when coding such structures. Also, be sure to rigorously check the logic of your algorithm since it is quite easy to overlook possible errors.
  
• Example:
  
  The if statement that tests for divisibility by 5 is located inside of the if statement that tests for divisibility by 3 therefore it is considered to be a nested if statement.
  
  if (number % 3 == 0)
  {
          cout << number << " is divisible by 3." << endl;
  
          if (number % 5 == 0)
          {
                  cout << number << " is divisible by 3 and 5." << endl;
          }
  
  }
  
  Notice the blank lines around the inner if statement for good style.

Objective #8: Be able to use the switch statement. (This topic may not be covered this semester. Ask the instructor if you are responsible for studying switch statements.)

• The switch statement is a multiple-selection structure that allows you to model even more complicated decision statements than a two-way if else structure allows. It chooses one of the "cases" depending on the result of the control expression.
  
  
• Only variables with the int or char data types may be used in the control expressions (or sometimes called controlling expressions) of switch statements. Single quotes must be used around char variables.
  
  
• Example where the variable characterEntered is a char variable. Notice the required use of single quotes around the character values in each case.

  switch (characterEntered)
  {
  case 'A':
        cout << "You entered an A";
        break;
  case 'B':
        cout << "You entered a B";
        break;
  default:
         cout << "Illegal entry";
         break;
  }

• Example where the variable menuChoice is an int variable. Note that single quotes are NOT used around the integer values in each case.
  
  switch (menuChoice)
  {
  case 1:
       cout << "You entered menu choice #1";
       break;
  case 2:
       cout << "You entered menu choice #2";
       break;
  case 3:
       cout << "You entered menu choice #3";
       break;
  default:
       cout << "You failed to enter a valid menu choice";
       break;
  }
  
  
• The default case, if present, will result if neither of the prior cases apply. A default case is not required but it is good programming style to include one.
  
  
• The break statement must be used within each case if you do not want following cases to evaluate once one case is found. When the break statement is executed within a switch, C++ will execute the next statement outside of the switch statement. However, sometimes it is desirable not to use the break statement in a particular case. Example:
  
  switch (donationLevel)
  {
  case 1:
     cout << "You donated over $1,000, you'll receive a free PSU pocket watch." << endl;
  case 2:
     cout << "You donated over $500, you'll receive a free PSU 14K gold pen & pencil set. "    << endl;
  case 3:
     cout << "You donated over $250, you'll receive a free PSU necktie." << endl;
  case 4:
     cout << "You donated over $100, you'll receive a free PSU bumper sticker. " << endl;
     break;
  default:
      cout << "You are cheap and ungenerous." << endl;
     break;
  }
  
  
• You can save redundancy in your code by placing the cases next to each other as in the following example.
  
  switch (number)
  {
  case 1:
  case 3:
  case 5:
  case 7:
  case 9:
       cout << number << " is an odd number." << endl;
       break;
  case 2:
  case 4:
  case 6:
  case 8:
       cout << number << " is an even number. " << endl;
       break;
  default:
       cout << number << " is not a value between or including 1 and 9." << endl;
       break;
  }
  
  
• According to our Coding Standards, you must include a blank line above your switch statement and one below it.

Objective #9: Be able to explain the importance of loops in programs.

• In order to write a non-trivial computer program, you almost always need to use one or more loops. Loops allow your program to repeat groups of statements a specified number of times. Loops are an example of an iteration structure.
  
  
• It is important to be aware of how many iterations a given loop is expected to perform. If a loop does not iterate a finite number of times, it is considered to be an infinite loop. Rarely would a programmer ever intentionally incorporate an infinite loop into a program, however it is easy to do so by mistake.

Objective #10: Be able to use for loops.

• A for loop always executes a specific number of iterations. Use a for loop when you know exactly how many times a set of statements must be repeated.
• A for loop is called a determinate or definite loop because the programmer knows exactly how many times it will iterate. You can mathematically determine the number of iterations by deskchecking the logic of the loop.
• After the keyword for a set of parentheses is necessary with three expressions as parameters.

  for (initializing expression; control expression; step expression)
  {
         // one or more statements
  }
  
  

• The initializing expression sets the counter variable for the loop to its initial value.
• The control expression ends the loop at the specified moment.
• The step expression changes the counter variable,effectively determining the number of iterations. The counter variable often increments by one, but it may increment, decrement, or count in other ways.
• Notice that semicolons are used to separate the three expressions above, not commas.
  
  
• Example:

  for (num = 1; num <= 3; num++ )   // num is initialized to the value 1
  {                                 // loop iterates while num is less than or equal to 3
         cout << num;               // num increments by 1 on each iteration         
         cout << endl;             
  }                                 // both statements execute on each iteration

• It is possible to have variable increase by a value other than one. For example the following loop would iterate 4 times with the variable num taking on the values 1, 4, 7, and 10. The step expression adds 3 to the value of num on each iteration.
  
  for (num = 1; num <= 10; num = num + 3)
  
  It is a common error though for students to use
  
  for (num = 1; num <= 9 ; num + 3)
  
  which causes a compile error.
  
  
• It is possible to initialize the loop variable within the initializing expression. But I recommend against CMPSC 101 students initializing loop variables within the loop and may deduct points for doing so. Students are required to declare loop variables at the top of the function (e.g. main function) where they are used.

  for (int num = 1; num <= 9; num = num + 3)
  {
             cout << num << endl;
  }

• If a loop only contains one body statement, the compiler doesn't require the use of curly braces. But I recommend against doing so for CMPSC 101 students. According to our Coding Standards for this course, you must use curly braces with for, while, and do/while loops.
  
  That is, do not use the following syntax without curly braces:

  for (num = 0; num < 10; num++)
         cout << num << endl;

• According to our Coding Standards, you must blank lines above and below any loop so that it stands out and is easier to read by fellow programmers.
  
• We will not be studying the comma operator in this CMPSC 101 course. (The textbook explains how the comma operator can be used on p. 72.)
  

Objective #11: Be able to use while loops.

• A while loop does not necessarily iterate a specified number of times. Rather, as long as its control expression is true, a while loop will continue to iterate. This type of loop is very useful in situations where a for loop would be ineffective, particularly when the user is given the opportunity to interact with the program.
  
  
• A while loop is considered to be an indeterminate or indefinite loop because usually only at run-time can it be determined how many times it will iterate.
  
  
• A while loop is also considered to be a top-checking loop, since the control expression is located on the first line of code with the while keyword. That is, if the control expression initially evaluates to false, the loop will not iterate even once.
  
  
• After the keyword, while, a control expression is necessary.

  while (control expression)
  {
          // one or more statements
  }
  
  The control expression must evaluate to true in order for the while loop to iterate even once.
  
  

• Example:

  while (num > 100 )        // control expression is true if num is greater than 100
  {
          cout << num;                
          num = num / 2;      // num is reassigned a new value during each iteration
  }                           
  

Objective #12: Be able to use do while loops.

• As with a while loop, a do while loop does not necessarily iterate a specified number of times. However, it is guaranteed that a do while loop will iterate at least one time because its control expression is placed at the end of the loop. This loop is useful when you want to guarantee at least one iteration of the loop.
  
  
• Like a while loop, a do while loop is considered to be an indeterminate or indefinite loop.
  
  
• A do while loop is considered to be a bottom-checking loop, since the control expression is located after the body of the loop after the while keyword. A do while loop is guaranteed to iterate at least once even if the control expression evaluates to false.

• The do keyword is placed on a line of code by itself at the top of the loop. A block of statements follows it with a control expression after the keyword while at the bottom of the loop.
  
  do
  {
            // body statements would be placed here
  }while (control expression);
  
  The control expression must evaluate to true in order for the do while loop to iterate after the first time.
  
  
• Example:
  
  do
  {
       cout << "Enter a number (0 to quit): ";
       cin >> num;
       sum = sum + num;
       cout << "Current sum is " << sum << '\n';
   } while (num != 0 );
  
  
• Don't forget to include the required semicolon after the control expression.

Objective #13: Be able to use the break and continue statements.

• A break statement is used to stop the execution of a loop immediately and to continue by executing the statement that comes directly after the loop. Only use the break statement when it is not practical to control the execution of a loop with its control expression. That is, only use a break statement when absolutely necessary.
• A continue statement is used to stop the execution of the statements in the loop's body on that particular iteration and to continue by starting the next iteration of the loop.

Objective #14: Be able to use and interpret nested loops.

• A loop of any kind may be placed in another loop (of any kind). One must be sure though to entirely encapsulate the inner loop inside of the outer loop, otherwise an error is sure to occur. Two loops are considered to be nested loops if one is enclosed within the other.
  
  
• Example:

  for (row = 1; row <= 2; row++ )
  {
      cout << "row is " << row << endl;
  
      for (column = 1; column <= 3; column++ )
      {
                cout << "column is " << column << endl;
      }

  }

       Notice the blank lines around the inner loop for good style.